Pregnancy test

    

A pregnancy test measures a hormone in the body called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG). HCG is a hormone produced during pregnancy. It appears in the blood and urine of pregnant women as early as 10 days after conception.

How the Test is Performed

A pregnancy test is done using blood or urine. There are 2 types of blood tests:

• Qualitative, which measures whether the HCG hormone is present
• Quantitative, which measures how much HCG is present

The blood test is done by drawing a single tube of blood and sending it to a laboratory. You may wait anywhere from a few hours to more than a day to get the results.

The urine HCG test is usually performed by placing a drop of urine on a prepared chemical strip. It takes 1 to 2 minutes for a result.

How the Test Will Feel

For the urine test, you urinate into a cup.

For the blood test, the health care provider uses a needle and syringe to draw blood from your vein into a tube. Any discomfort you might feel from the blood draw will only last a few seconds.

Why the Test is Performed

This test is done to:

• Determine if you are pregnant
• Diagnose abnormal conditions that can raise HCG levels
• Watch the development of the pregnancy during the first 2 months (quantitative test only)

Normal Results

HCG level rises rapidly during the first trimester of pregnancy and then slightly declines.

What Abnormal Results Mean

HCG level should almost double every 48 hours in the beginning of a pregnancy. HCG level that does not rise appropriately may indicate a problem with your pregnancy. Problems related to an abnormal rising HCG level include miscarriage and ectopic (tubal) pregnancy.

An extremely high level of HCG may suggest a molar pregnancy or more than one fetus, for example, twins.

The pregnancy test kit above shows that the result is negative while the kit below is positive 

Considerations

Urine pregnancy tests will only be positive when you have enough HCG in your blood. Most over-the-counter home pregnancy tests will not show that you are pregnant until your expected menstrual cycle is late. Testing before this will often give an inaccurate result. The HCG level is higher if your urine is more concentrated. A good time to test is when you first get up in the morning.

Urinalysis

A urine test checks different components of urine, a waste product made by the kidneys. A regular urine test may be done to help find the cause of symptoms. The test can give information about your health and problems you may have.

The kidneys  take out waste material, minerals, fluids, and other substances from the blood to be passed in the urine. Urine has hundreds of different body wastes. What you eat and drink, how much you exercise, and how well your kidneys work can affect what is in your urine. Click here for more information.

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Few laboratory equipment

PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the fallopian tubes, uterus, or ovaries. Most girls with PID develop it after getting a sexually transmitted disease (STD), such as chlamydia or gonorrhea.

Girls who have sex with different partners or don't use condoms are most likely to get STDs and be at risk for PID. If PID is not treated, it can lead to internal scarring that might cause ongoing pelvic pain, infertility, or an ectopic pregnancy.

What Are the Symptoms of PID?

PID can cause severe symptoms or very mild to no symptoms. Girls who do have symptoms may notice:

• pain and tenderness in the lower abdomen
• bad-smelling or abnormally colored discharge
• pain during sex
• spotting (small amounts of bleeding) between periods
• chills or fever
• nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea
• loss of appetite
• backache and perhaps even difficulty walking
• pain while peeing or peeing more often than usual
• pain in the upper abdomen on the right

What Can Happen?

Any girl who has signs of an STD should get medical care as soon as possible. An untreated STD has a greater chance of becoming PID.

If PID is not treated or goes unrecognized, it can continue to spread through a girl's reproductive organs. Untreated PID may lead to long-term reproductive problems, including:

• Scarring in the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and uterus.Widespread scarring may lead to infertility (the inability to have a baby) and chronic pelvic pain. A teen girl or woman who has had PID multiple times has more of a chance of being infertile.
• Ectopic pregnancy. If a girl who has had PID does get pregnant, scarring of the fallopian tubes may cause the fertilized egg to implant in one of the fallopian tubes rather than in the uterus. The fetus would then begin to develop in the tube, where there is no room for it to keep growing. This is called an ectopic pregnancy. An untreated ectopic pregnancy could cause the fallopian tube to burst suddenly, which might lead to life-threatening bleeding.
• Tubo-ovarian abscess (TOA). A TOA is a collection of bacteria, pus, and fluid in the ovary and fallopian tube. Someone with a TOA often looks sick and has a fever and pain that makes it difficult to walk. The abscess will be treated in the hospital with antibiotics, and surgery may be needed to remove it.

How Is PID Diagnosed and Treated?

If you think you may have PID, see your gynecological health care provider (your family doctor or nurse practitioner, gynecologist, or adolescent doctor) right away. The longer a girl waits before getting treatment, the more likely it is that she will have problems.

If a doctor thinks a girl has PID, he or she will do a physical exam, including a pelvic exam. The exam can show if a girl has a painful cervix, abnormal discharge from the cervix, or pain over one or both ovaries.

The doctor may also take swabs of fluid from the cervix and vagina, and this fluid will be tested for STDs. He or she may also do a pregnancy test. Sometimes health providers take blood or do urine tests to look for signs of infection, including STDs like chlamydia and gonorrhea.

Sometimes doctors need an ultrasound or CAT scan of the lower abdomen to see what's going on with a girl's reproductive organs. Ultrasounds are often used to diagnose a TOA or ectopic pregnancy.

If doctors find that a girl has PID, they will prescribe antibiotics to take for a couple of weeks. It's vital to take every dose of the medicine to completely treat the infection, even if a girl's symptoms go away before she finishes the medicine. It's also important that girls with PID get rechecked 2–3 days after beginning treatment to make sure that they are improving. A girl who has taken all her medicine for PID but still isn't feeling better should follow up with her doctor. 

Girls with more severe cases of PID might have a fever or vomiting, and not respond to medicines by mouth. They, and girls with PID who are pregnant, often are treated in the hospital for a few days with antibiotics given directly into a vein through an IV. Surgery is sometimes needed if a girl has an abscess. Ectopic pregnancies can require emergency surgery.

If a girl has PID, her sexual partners should be checked for STDs right away so they can get treatment. And, a couple should hold off on having sex again until at least 7 days after both partners have finished treatment. An untreated partner is likely to reinfect a girl with the same STD again.

Can PID Be Prevented?

The best way to prevent STDs or PID is to not have sex (abstinence). For those who choose to have sex, it's important to use protection and to have as few sexual partners as possible. Using latex condoms properly and every time you have sex helps protect against most STDs. However, it's also very important to have regular checkups with your doctor. And if either partner has any symptoms of STDs, both partners should be tested and treated as soon as possible.

So when you're making choices about sex, be smart and be safe.

URINARY TRACT INFECTION

What Is a Urinary Tract Infection?

A bacterial urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common kind of infection affecting the urinary tract. Urine, or pee, is the fluid that is filtered out of the bloodstream by the kidneys. Urine contains salts and waste products, but it doesn't normally contain bacteria. When bacteria get into the bladder or kidney and multiply in the urine, a UTI can result.

There are three main types of UTI. Bacteria that infect only theurethra (the short tube that delivers urine from the bladder to the outside of the body) cause urethritis (pronounced: yur-ih-threye-tis).

Bacteria can also cause a bladder infection, which is called cystitis(pronounced: sis-tie-tis). Another, more serious, kind of UTI is infection of the kidney itself, known as pyelonephritis(pronounced: pie-low-nih-fry-tis). With this type of UTI, a person often has back pain, high fever, and vomiting.

The most common type of UTI, the bladder infection, causes mostly just discomfort and inconvenience. Bladder infections can be quickly and easily treated. And it's important to get treatment promptly to avoid the more serious infection that reaches the kidneys.

Bacteria Are to Blame

UTIs are usually caused by E. coli, bacteria that are normally found in the digestive tract and on the skin around the rectal and vaginal areas. When the bacteria enter the urethra, they can make their way up into the bladder and cause an infection.

Girls get urinary tract infections much more frequently than guys, most likely due to differences in the shape and length of the urethra. Girls have shorter urethras than guys, and the opening lies closer to the rectum and vagina where bacteria are likely to be.

Some people seem to get frequent UTIs, but they often have other problems that make them more prone to infection, like an abnormality in the urinary tract structures or function. The most common functional problem of the urinary tract is calledvesicoureteral reflux (pronounced: veh-zi-coe-you-ree-tur-al), a condition in which some urine flows backward, or refluxes, from the bladder into the ureters and even up to the kidneys.

Bacteria can get into the urethra several ways. During sexual intercourse, for example, the bacteria in the vaginal area may be pushed into the urethra and eventually end up in the bladder, where urine provides a good environment for the bacteria to grow. This is the reason why females who are sexually active often get UTIs (UTIs are not contagious, so you can't catch a urinary tract infection from someone else).

Bacteria may also be introduced into a girl's bladder by wiping from back to front after a bowel movement, which can contaminate the urethral opening. The use of spermicides(including condoms treated with spermicide) and diaphragms as contraceptives also may increase the risk of UTIs.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) may cause UTI-like symptoms, such as pain with urination. This is due to the inflammation and irritation of the urethra or vagina that's sometimes associated with chlamydia and other STDs. If untreated, STDs can lead to serious long-term problems, including pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and infertility. Unlike UTIs, STDs are contagious.

symptoms of UTIs

A number of symptoms are associated with UTIs, including:

• frequent urination
• burning or pain during urination
• the feeling of having to pee even though little or no urine actually comes out
• pain in the lower abdomen
• pain above the pubic bone (in women)
• a full feeling in the rectum (in men)
• bloody or foul-smelling urine
• mild fever
• a general feeling of shakiness and fatigue

A kidney infection may involve more serious symptoms, including:

• high fever
• chills
• nausea and vomiting
• abdominal pain
• cloudy or bloody urine
• pain in the back, just above the waist

If you have any symptoms of a urinary tract infection, you'll need to go to a doctor right away. The symptoms won't go away if you ignore them — they'll only become worse. The more quickly you begin treatment, the less uncomfortable it will be.

Call your doctor's office or clinic immediately. If you can't reach your doctor, you can visit an urgent care center or hospital emergency room. The most important thing is to take action as soon as possible.

battling the Bacteria

Only your health care provider can treat urinary tract infections. The first thing a doctor will do is confirm that a person has a UTI by taking a clean-catch urine specimen. At the doctor's office, you'll be asked to clean your genital area with disposable wipes and then urinate into a sterile (bacteria-free) cup.

If an infection is suspected when the specimen is examined, a doctor will probably prescribe antibiotics. Because there are many different antibiotics available, the doctor may send the urine specimen for a urine culture, which is a test to identify the exact type of bacteria causing your infection. It takes about 48 hours to get results from a urine culture, and a doctor may ask patients to switch antibiotics depending on the results.

Although antibiotics begin fighting the infection right away, they can't stop all the symptoms immediately. If someone has a lot of pain from a UTI, the doctor may recommend a medication to help relieve the spasm and pain in the bladder. This will turn urine a bright orange color, but it's harmless and will usually make a person much more comfortable within hours. In the case of a kidney infection, a doctor may prescribe pain medication.

For some infections, a person may only have to take antibiotics for 3 days, but usually people with UTIs need to stay on medicine for 7 to 14 days. It's important to take the antibiotics until the prescription is finished. Many people stop taking medication when they begin to feel better, but that doesn't allow the antibiotics to completely kill the bacteria, which increases the risk that the infection will reappear.

If you've been diagnosed with a UTI and symptoms continue after you've used up all your medication or if your symptoms aren't much better after 2 to 3 days of treatment, contact your doctor.

It's important to drink lots of water during and after treatment because each time you urinate, the bladder cleanses itself a little bit more. Cranberry juice may also be helpful. People with UTIs should avoid coffee and spicy foods, which can irritate the bladder. Smoking also irritates the bladder, and cause bladder problems later on.

People who get a doctor's help for a UTI right away should be clear of symptoms within a week. For a more serious kidney infection, most people have to return to the doctor's office for a follow-up visit to ensure that the infection has responded completely to the medication.

In either case, a doctor may tell people with UTIs to avoid sexual intercourse for a week or so, which allows the inflammation to disappear completely.

preventing UTIs

There are several ways people may be able to prevent urinary tract infections. After urination, girls should wipe from front to back with toilet paper. After bowel movements, be sure to wipe from front to back to avoid spreading bacteria from the rectal area to the urethra.

Another thing both girls and guys can do to prevent UTIs is to go to the bathroom frequently. Avoid holding urine for long periods of time.

Males and females should also keep the genital area clean and dry. Girls should change their tampons and pads regularly during their periods. Frequent bubble baths can cause irritation of the vaginal area, so girls should take showers or plain baths. Avoid prolonged exposure to moisture in the genital area by not wearing nylon underwear or wet swimsuits. Wearing underwear with cotton crotches is also helpful. And girls should skip using feminine hygiene sprays or douches — these products can irritate the urethra.

If you are sexually active, go to the bathroom both before and within 15 minutes after intercourse. After sex, gently wash the genital area to remove any bacteria. Avoid sexual positions that irritate or hurt the urethra or bladder. Couples who use lubrication during sex should use a water-soluble lubricant such as K-Y Jelly.

Finally, drinking lots of water each day keeps the bladder active and bacteria free.

Remember that although urinary tract infections are uncomfortable and often painful, they are very common and easily treated. The sooner you contact your doctor, the sooner you'll be able to get rid of the problem.

Accidents in the laboratory.

ACCIDENTS IN THE LABORATORY

They may be caused by:

1. Acids } • Splashes on the skin or • Splashes in the eye

2. Alkalis • Swallowing

3. Toxic substances

4. Heat • Open flames

• Hot liquids

• Inflammable liquids

• Explosions

5. Broken glass

6. Contamination by infected material

7. Electric shock.

The items should be readily available in the laboratory. They must not be kept in a locked cupboard.

First Aid in Laboratory Accidents

Acid Burns

Nitric, sulfuric, hydrochloric and trichloroacetic acids.

In all cases: Wash immediately with large quantities of water.

Acid Splashes on the Skin

a. Wash thoroughly and repeatedly with water.

b. Bathe the affected skin with cotton wool soaked in 5%

aqueous sodium carbonate.

Acid Splashes in the Eye

a. Wash the eye immediately with large quantities of water sprayed from a wash bottle or rubber bulb.

Squirt the water into the corner of the eye near the nose.

b. After washing, put 4 drops of 2% aqueous sodium bicarbonate into the eye.

c. Refer the patient to a physician. Continue to apply bicarbonate solution to the eye while waiting for the doctor. Alternatively, hold the eye under the running tap.

c. Make him gargle with the soap solution.

d. Give him 3 or 4 glasses of ordinary water.

e. If the lips and tongue are burned by the acid:

• Rinse thoroughly with water

• Bathe with 2% aqueous sodium bicarbonate.

Alkali Burns

Sodium, potassium and ammonium hydroxide.

In all cases: Wash immediately with large quantities of water.

Important: Alkali burns are as serious as, and often more

serious than, acid burns.

Alkali Splashes on the Skin

a. Wash thoroughly and repeatedly with water.

b. Bathe the affected skin with cotton soaked in 5% acetic acid (or undiluted vinegar).

Alkali Splashes in the Eye

a. Wash immediately with large quantities of water

sprayed from a wash bottle or rubber bulb. Squirt the water into the corner of the eye near the nose.

b. After washing with water, wash the eye with a saturated solution of boric acid (apply drops repeatedly).

c. Refer the patient to a physician at once.

Swallowing Alkalis

Accidental swallowing while using a pipette:

a. Send for a physician.

b. Make the patient drink at once:

• A 5% solution of acetic acid or lemon juice or

dilute vinegar (1 part vinegar to 3 parts water).

c. Make him gargle with the same acid solution.

d. Give him 3 or 4 glasses of ordinary water.

e. If the lips and tongue are burned by the alkali:

• Rinse thoroughly with water

• Bathe with 5% acetic acid.

Poisoning

This can be caused by:

* Inhaling toxic vapors or gases (e.g. chloroform)

* Accidental swallowing while pipetting a poisonous solution.

In all cases

a. Send for a physician or qualified nurse, specifying the

toxic substance involved

b. Place the victim in the open air while waiting for the

physician.

Burns Caused by Heat

They fall into two categories:

*Severe burns—affecting large areas of skin, e.g. burns caused when burning ether or boiling water is spilled over the victim

* Minor burns—affecting a small area of skin, e.g. burns caused by hot glassware or a Bunsen flame.

Severe Burns

a. If the victim is on fire, e.g. if splashed with burning ether or other inflammable solvent, roll him in a blanket or overall to smother the flames.

b. Inform the physician on duty immediately.

c. Lay the victim on the ground. Do not remove his clothing. Cover him if he is cold.

d. Do not apply any treatment to the burns. This must be left to the physician.

Minor Burns

a. Plunge the affected part into cold water or ice-water to soothe the pain.

b. Apply mercurochrome or acriflavine ointment to the burn.

c. Apply a dry gauze dressing loosely.

d. If the burn becomes infected or does not heal, refer the patient to a physician.

Note: Never tear off the blisters that form over the burns.

Injuries Caused by Broken Glass

These are caused by broken test tubes, syringes or other glassware.

a. Wash the wound immediately to remove any glass pieces.

b. Apply mercurochrome or acriflavine ointment to the wound.

c. Cover with gauze and adhesive tape.

d. If the cut bleeds profusely, stop the bleeding by pressing down on it with a compress. Refer the patient to a physician.

e. If the cut bleeds heavily with the blood spurting out at intervals, try to stop the bleeding with a compress and call a physician or qualified nurse.

f. Continue to press on the wound while awaiting the physician’s or nurse’s arrival. He or she will decide whether a tourniquet should be applied.

Contamination by Infected Material

Wounds caused by broken glassware containing stools,pus, etc.

a. Wash the wound immediately.

b. Check whether the cut is bleeding. If not, squeeze hard to make it bleed for several minutes.

c. Bathe the whole area, i.e. the edges of the cut and inside the cut, with antiseptic lotion.

d. Wash thoroughly with soapy water.

e. Bathe again with antiseptic lotion.

f. Refer the patient to a physician, if the material involved is known to be very infective, e.g. pus.

If infected material is accidentally sucked into the mouth:

a. Spit it out immediately.

b. Wash out the mouth with diluted antiseptic lotion.

c. Wash out the mouth thoroughly with large amounts

of clean water.

Bodily Damage by Electric Shock

A low-voltage alternating electric current (220 V) is usually used in the laboratory and electric shocks are rare. They may occur when faulty equipment is being handled, particularly with wet hands. The symptoms are fainting and asphyxia.

a. Before doing anything else, put off the main switch.

b. Send for a physician.

c. Begin giving mouth-to-mouth respiration immediately

if required.

Precautions for the Avoidance of Accidents

1. Handling acids and alkalis

a. Diluting sulfuric acid with water: Always add the sulfuric acid to the water drop by drop, stirring the mixture after each drop. Do this preferably in a sink. Never pour water into sulfuric acid (because of the danger of splashing).

b. Bottles of acids and alkalis: Keep them on the lower shelves of the cupboards. When you take one out, hold it firmly upright with a dry hand.Do not keep acids and alkalis in bottles with ground glass stoppers as they may get stuck.

c. Pipetting: Where possible, use small measuring cylinders for measuring acids and alkalis. If more accurate measurement is required, use a pipette plugged with non-absorbent cotton wool or with a rubber tube attached. Pipette slowly, watching the level of the liquid.

2. Heating glassware and liquids

a. Test tubes: Never heat the bottom of a test tube.The liquid inside might sputter. Heat the middle of the tube, shaking gently. The mouth of the tube should be facing away from the worker and any other person, towards an empty space or a sink.

b. Ordinary glass and Pyrex: Only Pyrex glassware and porcelain receptacles can be heated over a Bunsen flame. Ordinary glass will break.

c. Inflammable liquids: Only small quantities of inflammable liquids such as ether, ethanol, acetone,benzene, toluene and carbon disulfide should be kept in the laboratory.

Warning: Ether will ignite at a distance of several meters from a flame. Never place a bottle of ether on a workbench where there is an open flame (Bunsen burner, spirit lamp, etc.). Carbon disulfide is even more dangerous.

d. Butane gas: When lighting a gas burner, always light the match and hold it to the burner before turning on the gas tap. Turn off the main valves of all butane gas cylinders every evening. Replace the rubber connecting pipes once a year.

3. Do not use broken, cracked or chipped laboratory

glassware.

4. Put clear labels on poisons. Keep them in a locked cupboard.

5. Do not use nylon clothes while working as these are easily inflammable. Always use a laboratory apron.

6. Always ensure that electrical wiring and electrical appliances are in good condition.

Suggested List of First Aid Equipment for Laboratory

1. 5% aqueous sodium carbonate

2. 2% aqueous sodium bicarbonate in an eye drop bottle

3. 5% acetic acid

4. Saturated solution of boric acid in an eye drop bottle

5. Soap powder solution (5 g per liter of water)

6. Acriflavine ointment

7. Mercurochrome 2%

8. Antiseptic lotion

9. Cotton wool

10. Gauze

11. Roller bandage

12. Adhesive tape

13. Scissors.

Contamination from Infective Material If contamination has occurred, then:

1. Disinfect the part with the disinfectant available in the laboratory. Thoroughly clean the affected area with a stream of running water.

2. Sucking the contaminated material: Spit out all that has been sucked. Use a disinfectant liquid (e.g. diluted dettol) for mouth washing. If the infected material has been swallowed accidentally, forced vomiting to be done, ascertain the kind of infection and take advise from a medical person.

3. If skin is infected by highly virulent organisms, touch the involved part with pure carbolic acid.

Precautionary Measures

1. A fire extinguisher should always be handy.

2. Keep sand bucket in the laboratory.

3. Take measures to prevent electrical short circuiting.

4. No smoking in the working zone of the laboratory.

5. Breakable items should be kept in proper racks and never at the edge of the working table.

6. Do not suck anything with the mouth, use rubber teats and bulbs for sucking.

7. Do not place eatables on the working bench.

8. Keep fingernails short.

9. At the end of the day, clean all working benches with a disinfectant. See that nothing except the required electrical appliance is on.

10. Dispose all infected material properly. Can put such material in hypochlorite solution or in an acidic solution, e.g. diluted sulfuric acid (25%). Burn off all dried contaminated articles, e.g. filter papers.

11. The glassware should be disinfected with a suitable disinfectant and be cleaned thoroughly with running water.

12. Use rubber gloves and a nose mask while working with infective samples, e.g. serum of viral hepatitis patient.

EYE WASHING UPRIGHT

EYE WASHING LYING

MOUTH TO MOUTH RESPIRATION